His work reveal a great oratory and literary capacity that he took advantage of to report the life conditions of the Indians and Black slaves.
[Read More]
Father Antonio Vieira was born in 1608 in Lisbon. He was baptized it seems in the same baptismal font as Saint Antonio of Lisbon. At the age of 6, his father was appointed to a public position in Baia, Brazil; they arrive there in 1615.
In his youth he study in the Companhia de Jesus College of local and national fame, where he is submitted to the harsh jesuit discipline. In his way from home to college the younger Antonio is exposed to the effervescent life of a city in full expansion. This is how he first got in contact with the Indians slaves, loading and unloading bales under the whip of foremen.
In the beginning he was not a brilliant student, he reveals however an energic tenacious temperament. Suddenly, at the age of 14, he start to give signs of intelligence and a great literary capacity. At the age of 15 he feels the vocation to be a jesuit monk. He double his interest in studies, becames the best student of his class and master at all disciplines. At the age of 16 he was put in charge of write the annual report of the jesuit province in latin to the general emissary of the jesuits. At the age of 18 he was appointed rhetoric professor at Olinda College.
But these are not the dreams of the young. More than for reflection, he feels touched by the desire of action: either be preacher, missionary, apostle, convert the disbelievers, fighting mistake and bring the Catholic faith to the Indians of the interior.
At the beginning of 1624 the Dutch attach Baía and force the natives, colons and jesuits to seek refugy in the interior. Then, in direct contact with the Indians, Antonio Vieira learns their languages, knows their costumes, admires their way of life, putting himself on their side to defend them of all torture and humiliation.
SUCSESSES AND FAILURES IN POLICY
Father Antonio Vieira returns to Portugal in 1641 as a prestigious Jesuit, preacher popular in Brazil, passionate missionary and loved by Indians from the village of the Espirito Santo. He said his first Mass in 1635, is master of theology at the College of St. Salvador, fighter against the successive attacks of the Dutch to Portuguese possessions in Brazil, famous for a sermon delivered in Baía, against God, who abandoned the Catholics to put alongside the heretics Dutch - one of his most extraordinary prayers (Sermon by the victory of the our weapons against the Netherlands).
His return to Portugal was motivated by the news that reach Brazil that year that Portuguese independence from the Philipine dynasty was restored the year before by D. Joao IV. The then vice-king of Brazil, D. Jorge de Mascarenhas, marquis of Montalvão, welcomes the information with enthusiasm, adheres to the new king, puts the colony under the authority of the new king and hereby submit to Lisbon one of his sons to ensure loyalty to the king. Father Antonio Vieira joins this effort and embark to Portugal.
By then, the diplomatic activity of Portugal abroad does not cease. D. D. João IV send ambassadors trough Europe to get recognition and support in the war against Spain.
With time, Vieira become intimate of the king, frankly captivated by the personality of the Jesuit, and gives some sermons that grange in Lisbon the same reputation that had reached in Brazil. From that point on, he stood behind the royal decisions. His wide culture allows him to involve in everything.
Vieira wants to restore Portugal in its former greatness. The king appoints him his royal preacher. The Jesuit becomes the King's man of confidence.
In his affairs regarding the country policy he sets some advanced economic and law reforms, some of them would bring him some enemies about to loose some of their former power under Vieira new directives.
In 1646, D. João IV sends him, secretly, to France and the Netherlands to search for support in the war against Spain. He returns to Portugal in 1648 when the Iberian war reaches is climax point. Again, D. João IV uses Vieira. Only a diplomatic action could end the dispute. It is then that the Jesuit, fertile in imagination, will generate a plan.
THE FIFTH EMPIRE
For a long time Father António Vieira writes a book about the secret V Empire, inspired by biblical prophecies. The old dream: to give Portugal its former greatness.
Deeply studying the Scriptures and all Santos who speak of the emperor that Jesus promised to the Church, the Jesuit is firmly convinced that the V Empire can only be Portuguese (the past had been that of the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks and the Romans ).
Based in the words of Jesus to King Afonso Henriques in the battle of Ourique (at the time an incontested truth), "I want you and your generation to create an empire for me," Father Antonio Vieira come to believe that the king chosen is now D. João IV. The Fifth Empire would be of temporal and spiritual order. In both camps, Portugal would be the guide to reform Christianity and establish peace in the world.
This ideal construction of Father Antonio Vieira, an imaginative and outrageous prodigy, would begin to become reality if the Crown Prince Portuguese marry the heir to the Spanish throne. This would start to be the promised empire, with Castela and Portugal under the same king.
The king is seduced by the plan and sends Vieira to Rome for the first contacts with the Spanish ambassador in the papal city. But the diplomat don´t welcome the proposal. He doubts of Portuguese intentions. The plan fails and Vieira returns to Portugal in 1649 - the year in which the Jesuit priest Martim Leitão denounces him to the Inquisition for the first time. This failure and under the pressure of Vieira many enemies, make the king somewhat turn his affection for him and removes Vieira from his conviviality and in 1652 the Jesuits order him to return to Brazil, as missionary in Maranhao province. This time, the king does nothing to counter his departure.
A few days later from his arrival, Vieira sees the moral chaos of the people of Maranhao, especially the whites, only concerned about enrichment without rules. The Indians living in the largest of miseries and at the mercy of the settlers. As soon as in the first sermons he violently attacks the customs and odious regime of slavery. He tries incursions in the native lands of the Sertao, to protect the indigenous and black, then starting to come from Africa. He only achieve the animosity and hatred of the official authorities and the settlers. But with the energy that has always characterized him he develops a huge activity looking to alleviate the suffering of the most unfortunate, visit the prisoners, founded a hospital, divides its food, preaches and condemns the luxury. Write, write always.
Anthony Vieira conceives another plan, this time in accordance with the Jesuit companions: he'll go, again, to Portugal, for a short time. The time only needed for, with his eloquence to convince the king to dictate the decrees that put an end to the ongoing moral and social breakdown in Brazil.
Before his departure, however, in the Cathedral of St. Luís he pronounce his most beautiful sermon, O Sermao de Santo Antonio aos Peixes - parabolic allusion to the state of affairs in the colony.
He embark on his journey in June, 1654. At his arrival the king, very sick, welcomes him with affection. The separation time led the monarch to better assess the priest. He acknowledges all his qualities, forgive him the past errors, and repeatedly asked him to stay at his side.
In Court, however, he's hated. For the king's friendship, by tuff sermons where he attacks Portuguese society, and for the strange mania to be against powerful dishonest and for the people. They want him far, between the wild.
After a few sermons in which, as always, Vieira shows, alongside his amazing culture, the sense of justice and independence of character, D. João IV deliver him the decree in which the Jesuits are to have full jurisdiction over the Indians. Thereafter, the local authorities will not intervene in the missions, and can never serve up the Indians as slaves. It was that Vieira wanted. The king appoints Andre Vidal for governor of Para and Maranhao. Andre Vidal is a hero of the victory over the Dutch, a friend of Vieira, and sensitive to the problems of Indians and blacks.
He returns to Brazil in 1655 with the good news.
HAPPY TIMES AND THE EXPULSION
Vieira and the Jesuits action until 1661 is remarkable. He visits and manage all missions, and is in permanent trip through Brazil. It was the happiest time in his life, as he says, more happy in their lives. It will also be, after that, the most difficult and dangerous period. The evangelization and protection of the indigenous occupy him completely - almost, because he start the publication of his sermons, now the suggestion of the Society of Jesus.
The anger of the settlers run up against the Jesuits, in which Vieira is the more combative and energetic. A new governor replaces Andre Vidal. With him the relations worsen. The priest aggravates the conflict. Given the enormous mass of blacks who land in Baía to be subjected to slavery, Vieira speaks his views. For one month he preaches every day (sermons are known as Mystic Rosa, Rosario) addressing the issue of slavery.
The Jesuits are accused of impeding the economic development of Brazil. The hatreds reach the peak. In May 1661, the settlers of Maranhão break trough the Society of Jesus and, immediately afterwards, the same happens with the house of the members of the Order in Belem. Among insults and assaults the Jesuits are trapped in several boats, and reduced to poverty and hunger.
In September 1661, all religious, including Vieira, are placed in the ship Sacramento and sent to Lisbon.
SENTENCED TO SILENCE
There, the Regent, D. Luísa de Gusmão, welcome Father António Vieira with friendship and admiration. She reintegrates him in his role as royal preacher. But in Court the former intrigues prevail, the Jesuit is unwanted.
Vieira vigorously defends itself from accusations that emissaries from Brazil make against the Jesuits. D. Luisa de Gusmao supports the priest. Replaces the governor of Para and Maranhao. The news that arrive give account of the new situation of the Indians: hunted for turn into slaves.
Meanwhile the war with Spain continues. The wins of the Portuguese army are the only happy news of the time.
With the ascent of the crown Prince D. Afonso VI to the thrown Vieira looses his influence and the nobles reset former divergences with him to convince the new king to dispose Vieira services and he was set to Porto where he faces the accusations of the Inquisition. From Porto they send him to the College of the Company in Coimbra, denying him the possibility to return to Brazil. On October 1 1663 the Holy Office mandates that he remains at his place of custody. New complaints had entered the Inquisition.
In prison he become ill but manage to write A Historia do Futuro along with his trail.
The Inquisition raises the charges to Vieira: is guilty of defending the new Christians, from maintained contacts with Jews in the Netherlands and calvinistas, and from spreading heresies about some V Empire. Vieira defends itself, while admitting some charges, which he does not, however, give any importance as to attack against the Catholic faith.
On December 23, 1667, the court of the Holy Office emit the veredict whereby he is sentenced to forced reclusion and prevented from preaching.
On June 12, 1668 Vieira is released. He was, however, prohibited in his sermons to refer matters related to new Christians, prophecies, V Empire, Inquisition. Ten days after he preaches a sermon commemorating the anniversary of D. Maria Francisca of Savoy at the Royal Chapel.
His superiors send him to Rome with the task of promoting the canonization of 40 Jesuit arrested in the Canary Islands and tormented by Protestants in 1570. But Vieira goes, too, for another reason: he aims at obtaining a full annulment of sentence of the Holy Office. After being humiliated and wronged he comes back to fight. Fight that will win.
VICTORY
The personality of Vieira, his energy, his exuberance, quickly conquer the Italian city. He puts the inquisitorial methods in check and sends a memorial to the Pope on the subject. The Pope shows receptive to Vieira arguments and his process is reviewed.
Finaly the Pope, in a brief, free Antonio Vieira "of the perpetually inquisitorial jurisdiction." He could preach about what he wants and only subject to the rules of his order. The Pope goes further: Suspends the Autos of Faith in Portugal.
Durante os anos de vida em Roma o padre alcança enorme prestígio. Aprende italiano para poder pregar nessa língua. Os sermões que pronuncia em terras transalpinas são de uma excepcional qualidade literária, espiritual e filosófica. A tal ponto que o Colégio dos Cardeais lhe pede para que pregue na sua presença.
During his Roman years the priest reaches enormous prestige. He learns Italian to preach in that language. he sermons he pronounces there are of an exceptional literary, spiritual and philosophical quality in such point that the Cardinals College asks him to preach in his presence.
On May 22 Vieira leave Rome, back to Portugal. From the papal brief the Inquisition no longer may touch him.
His fragile health aggravates. As a consequence he returns to Brazil looking for a better weather in 1681.
He take advantage of his time spent in Lisbon to compile and finalise the Sermons, whose first volume comes out in 1679.
THE END
Pope Innocent XI revogates the brief of his predecessor. In Portugal, the Inquisition raises all sorts of falsehoods against him once more. In Brazil, he suffers indirect attacks through accusations made against his brother Bernardo, then Baía secretary of state. Three years later his brother is declared innocent.
At 80 years old, sick, weakened by constant sangrias that is submitted, the General Company appoints him General Visitor of Brazil.
There he was again "on the road" and in the mountains, walking by forests and jungles in his task of evangelization. But in May 1691, the forces abandon him and he resigns.
Later he was charged from trying to influence the vote of the prosecutor of the Order and to oppose the new legislation of the Indians, again against them. He got his active and passive voice removed and calls to his order superior in Rome, asking him to review his case.
On December 17, 1697 the General of the Jesuits annuls the resolution.
Translated from vidaslusofonas.pt
Friday, February 15, 2008
Father Antonio Vieira
Tuesday, February 12, 2008
Monday, February 11, 2008
The Elegant Universe
Eleven dimension, parallel universes, and a world made out of strings. It's not science fiction. It's String Theory.
Part I
Part II
Part III
Source: PBS
Introduction to Philosophy
The simplest definition of "philosophy" is: the love of wisdom
The two root words are "philo" meaning love and "sophia" meaning wisdom.
Philosophy is not the same as wisdom. Philosophy is the love of wisdom.
There are many people who have a wisdom that they live by or believe in; many people have been indoctrinated into one creed or another. That does not make them philosophers. A philosopher is a person who personally loves to know the truth about the general principles of the world; a person who actively pursues the truth in such matters.
Using this basic definition of philosophy, one can understand what has motivated the countless number of famous philosophers down through the ages. Each one was on a personal search for the principles of the universe.
The history of western philosophy is marked by three revolutions in thought.
1. The revolutionary switch from religious or mythical ways of thinking to a rational way of thinking which occurred in ancient Greece and centers around the time of Socrates (470-399 B.C.)
2. The epistemological revolution which occurred around the time of Descartes (1596-1650). For a long time thinkers had been taking something for granted which they used in all their work - knowledge. They had assumed the reliability of the human mind. It was Descartes who called into question the very foundations of all knowledge by doubting the reliability of knowing. All philosophy since that time has had to deal with this issue.
3. The linguistic revolution occurred at the beginning of the 20th century. For a long time thinkers had been taking something for granted which they used in all their work - language. They had assumed the reliability of language. It was Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-1951) who questioned the very purpose and function of language, and its use and misuse in philosophical discussions. Wittgenstein's philosophy is unusual in that his first major work, called the "Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus", published in 1921, was a central vehicle in the view that philosophical problems were based on a misuse of language; and that a careful logical analysis would clarify the meaning of these issues. Then, Wittgenstein's second book, the "Philosophical Investigations", published in 1953 (two years after his death) was an attack on his previous work and proposed a new type of linguistic analysis, which proposed that a sentence is understood not by itself, but only in the context of its use.
NOTE TO THE READER: The above three revolutions in philosophy are greatly simplified and are given only as a bare outline. There were writers before the philosophers mentioned who began to recognize these problems. The revolutions were preceded by a gradual buildup of questioning on these issues. And of course I am only discussing western philosophy. There was philosophic activity in other cultures around the world as well.
SIX MAIN DIVISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY
While different authors divide philosophy differently, the following divisions include all the areas of philosophical problems:
1. Logic
2. Epistemology
3. Ethics
4. Metaphysics
5. Political Philosophy
6. Aesthetics
Quantum Mechanics
Quantum Mechanics is the successful theory of the fundamental forces and particles of the Universe and also the theory behind Quantum Field Theory,the main component of the Standard Model, the general theory that unifies 3 of the 4 fundamental forces in a coherent and predictable model of the Universe.
In his website Andrew Thomas gives a full account of the main concepts of Quantum Mechanics in an easy and accessible manner.
Quantum Mechanics: An Introduction
Introducing the peculiar world of the quantum, where a particle is a wave, and a wave is a particle. Considers the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
The Quantum Casino
At its most basic level, nature appears to be fundamentally random. Are we all players in a game of chance at the Quantum Casino?
Quantum Entanglement
Quantum states can become entangled in astonishing ways. Welcome to the strange world of "qubits", faster-than-light communication, and Einstein's first definition of reality.
Quantum Decoherence
At last it would appear a solution has been found to the riddle of the apparent collapse of the wavefunction. Includes an interactive simulation of decoherence in an ensemble of particles.
Quantum Reality
A review of our study of quantum mechanics, the Copenhagen Interpretation, and the first indications of a deeper "veiled" reality.
It's a Small World
Introducing the Standard Model of particle physics, and string theory. But are these theories truly fundamental, or do they rest on a infinite tower of turtles?
The Cosmic Universe
What happened at the start of the universe? Could Arnold Schwarzenegger's Terminator arm hold the key? Also considers quantum gravity and the "wavefunction of the universe".
The Anthropic Principle
Some of the fundamental physical constants in the universe appear to have been fine-tuned, otherwise life could not exist. Are "multiverse" solutions the answer to this mystery?
The Arrow of Time
All fundamental physical processes appear to be time-reversible - so why don't we see broken eggs mending themselves? And why can't we remember the future?
The Mathematical Universe
The universe appears to have an uncanny connection with the world of mathematics. Why is this? And do mathematical structures have a reality all of their own?
The Big Brother Universe
An examination of the evidence that our universe is the product of an advanced civilisation. Are we living in a computer simulation? Are we all "housemates" in the ultimate reality show?
